What is Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India, drafted by a constituent assembly and adopted on 26th January 1950, which came into effect on the same day. It is the lengthiest written constitution of any country on Earth.

The Constitution of India serves as the framework for the governance of the country and lays down the powers and duties of the government institutions, as well as the rights and duties of the citizens. It provides a comprehensive set of guidelines and principles that govern the political, social, and economic life of the country.

Key Features of the Indian Constitution:

1. Preamble: The Constitution begins with a preamble that outlines the ideals and aspirations of the people of India, including justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

2. Federal Structure: India has a federal structure of government, with powers divided between the central government and the states. However, it also has unitary features, where the central government has overriding powers in certain situations.

3. Parliamentary Democracy: India follows the parliamentary system of government where the President is the head of state, and the Prime Minister is the head of government.

4. Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees several fundamental rights to the citizens, including right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and right to constitutional remedies.

5. Directive Principles of State Policy: The Constitution also contains a set of directive principles which are guidelines for the government to establish a just society in the country. These principles are not legally enforceable but are fundamental to the governance of the country.

6. Independent Judiciary: The judiciary in India is independent of the executive and legislative branches. The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial body in the country.

7. Amendment Procedure: The Constitution provides for its own amendment, ensuring that it can be adapted to changing needs and circumstances. Amendments can be initiated by the introduction of a bill in either House of Parliament.

8. Secularism: India is a secular state, meaning that the state does not have an official religion. It treats all religions equally and does not discriminate against any religion.

9. Universal Adult Suffrage: Every citizen of India who is 18 years old and above has the right to vote, irrespective of caste, creed, religion, or gender.

10. Emergency Provisions: The Constitution provides for three types of emergencies - National Emergency, State Emergency (President's Rule), and Financial Emergency, during which the central government gains special powers.

11. The Constitution of India has been amended several times since its enactment to meet the evolving needs of the country. As of my last update in September 2021, there have been 105 amendments to the Constitution. Please note that there might have been additional amendments since that time.

What is a Solar eclipse?

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, temporarily blocking out some or all of the Sun's light. This phenomenon happens because of the relative positions of the Sun, Moon, and Earth in their orbits.

There are three main types of solar eclipses:

1. Total Solar Eclipse: This is when the Moon completely covers the Sun, leaving only the Sun's outer atmosphere, called the solar corona, visible. During a total solar eclipse, the sky darkens significantly, and the Sun's outer atmosphere becomes visible as a bright halo around the Moon. Total solar eclipses are relatively rare and can only be seen from a specific path on Earth's surface.

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3. Partial Solar Eclipse: In a partial solar eclipse, the Moon partially covers the Sun, but it doesn't completely block it. The Sun appears as a crescent or a partial disk during this type of eclipse. The degree of coverage varies depending on your location within the eclipse's path.

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5. Annular Solar Eclipse: An annular solar eclipse happens when the Moon is near its farthest point from Earth (apogee) in its elliptical orbit. In this case, the Moon doesn't completely cover the Sun. Instead, it leaves a ring or "annulus" of the Sun's outer edge visible around the Moon. Annular eclipses are sometimes referred to as "ring of fire" eclipses because of this characteristic.

6. 1. Solar eclipses are fascinating natural events, but it's important to note that looking directly at the Sun, even during an eclipse, can be extremely harmful to your eyes. To observe a solar eclipse safely, you should use proper eclipse glasses or other approved solar viewing equipment. Additionally, you can indirectly view a solar eclipse by creating a pinhole projector or using other safe viewing methods.

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      Types of Solar Eclipses

   4. There are 4 different types of solar eclipses. How much of the Sun's disk is eclipsed, the eclipse magnitude, depends on which part of the Moon's shadow falls on Earth.

      1. Partial solar eclipses occur when the Moon only partially obscures the Sun's disk and casts only its penumbra on Earth.
      2. Annular solar eclipses take place when the Moon's disk is not big enough to cover the entire disk of the Sun, and the Sun's outer edges remain visible to form a ring of fire in the sky. An annular eclipse of the Sun takes place when the Moon is near apogee, and the Moon's antumbra falls on Earth.
      3. Total solar eclipses happen when the Moon completely covers the Sun, and it can only take place when the Moon is near perigee, the point of the Moon's orbit closest to Earth. You can only see a total solar eclipse if you're in the path where the Moon casts its darkest shadow, the umbra.
      4. Hybrid Solar Eclipses, also known as annular-total eclipses, are the rarest type. They occur when the same eclipse changes from an annular to a total solar eclipse, and/or vice versa, along the eclipse's path.

      Solar Eclipses Mainly Look Partial

      Solar eclipses are only visible from within the area on Earth where the Moon's shadow falls, and the closer you are to the center of the shadow's path, the bigger the eclipse looks.

      Solar eclipses are usually named for their darkest, or maximum, point. The exception is the hybrid eclipse.

   5. Protect Your Eyes!

      Never look directly at the Sun, eclipsed or otherwise, without any protective eyewear. The Sun’s radiation can burn the retinas in your eyes leading to permanent damage or even blindness.

      The best way to safely watch a total solar eclipse is to wear protective eclipse glasses or to project an image of the eclipsed Sun using a pinhole projector.

   6. The Moon Eclipses the Sun

      An eclipse of the Sun happens when the New Moon moves between the Sun and Earth, blocking out the Sun's rays and casting a shadow on parts of Earth.

      The Moon's shadow is not big enough to engulf the entire planet, so the shadow is always limited to a certain area (see map illustrations below). This area changes during the course of the eclipse because the Moon and Earth are in constant motion: Earth continuously rotates around its axis while it orbits the Sun, and the Moon orbits Earth. This is why solar eclipses seem to travel from one place to another.

What is called dinosaur?

Dinosaur, (clade Dinosauria), the common name given to a group of reptiles, often very large, that first appeared roughly 245 million years ago (near the beginning of the Middle Triassic Epoch) and thrived worldwide for nearly 180 million years. Most died out by the end of the Cretaceous Period, about 66 million years ago, but many lines of evidence now show that one lineage evolved into birds about 155 million years ago.

Abundant fossil bones, teeth, trackways, and other hard evidence have revealed that Earth was the domain of the dinosaurs for at least 230 million years. But so far, not a single trace of dinosaur remains has been found in rocks younger than about 66 million years. At that point, as the Cretaceous period yielded to the Paleogene, it seems that all nonavian dinosaurs suddenly ceased to exist.

Along with them went fearsome marine reptiles such as the mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, and plesiosaurs, as well as all the flying reptiles known as pterosaurs. Ancient forests seem to have flamed out across much of the planet. And while some mammals, birds, small reptiles, fish, and amphibians survived, diversity among the remaining life-forms dropped precipitously. In total, this mass extinction event claimed three quarters of life on Earth.

(Read E.O. Wilson’s Britannica essay on mass extinction.)

The name dinosaur comes from the Greek words deinos (“terrible” or “fearfully great”) and sauros (“reptile” or “lizard”). The English anatomist Richard Owen proposed the formal term Dinosauria in 1842 to include three giant extinct animals (Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, and Hylaeosaurus) represented by large fossilized bones that had been unearthed at several locations in southern England during the early part of the 19th century. Owen recognized that these reptiles were far different from other known reptiles of the present and the past for three reasons: they were large yet obviously terrestrial, unlike the aquatic ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs that were already known; they had five vertebrae in their hips, whereas most known reptiles have only two; and, rather than holding their limbs sprawled out to the side in the manner of lizards, dinosaurs held their limbs under the body in columnar fashion, like elephants and other large mammals.

The premise of the Jurassic Park film franchise is an elegant one: that dinosaur DNA, preserved in the guts of ancient mosquitoes trapped in amber, could be used to clone these animals and bring them back to life using the latest genetic technology. It's an ingenious idea, but one that remains deeply within the realms of science fiction, at least for now.

So, given that we're unlikely to see dinosaurs roaming our zoos and safari parks anytime soon, how do scientists determine how these amazing animals fed, ran, bred and died

How old is that dinosaur?

By carefully cutting thin sections through dinosaur bones and putting them under the microscope, we can age dinosaurs and work out how fast they grew to adulthood. This is done by counting the growth lines in the bone walls which, much like tree rings, were laid down each year.

How do we know what dinosaurs looked like?

Some dinosaur fossils are so spectacularly preserved they include evidence of soft tissues like skin, muscle and internal organs. These give vital clues on dinosaur biology and appearance.

Birds are dinosaurs

The recognition that birds are dinosaurs is an idea that has been proven beyond reasonable doubt in the last 20 years, and also gives us new clues on what extinct dinosaurs might have been like.

Recreating ancient dinosaur features in birds

Some scientists are currently attempting to switch on long-dormant genes in living birds that might have been responsible for producing the teeth, characteristic skull shapes and long tails of their dinosaur ancestors.

Early birds had teeth, as shown here in this palaeoart reconstruction of Patagopteryx, which lived around 80 million years ago. Scientists have worked out which genes were responsible for forming the teeth. They are still present in birds today, but are dormant. © FunkMonk (Michael BH), licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

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These efforts are already producing impressive findings, such as genes that can transform bird beaks back into more dinosaur-like snouts and those that can stimulate hens to form teeth.

This work is undoubtedly interesting - and it has implications for human health. Some of the key genes are also important in regulating various strains of human cancer, so this pure science project on dinosaur genes is providing insights that could improve human health too.

Moreover, this type of genetic manipulation, based on the DNA of living dinosaurs, is probably the closest we will ever get in reality to a Jurassic Park scenario.

What is G20 information in detail?

 he term "G20" can refer to two different but related concepts:

Group of Twenty (G20): As I mentioned in my previous response, the G20 is an international forum for governments and central bank governors from 19 individual countries and the European Union. It was established to promote international financial stability and economic cooperation, and it addresses a wide range of global economic and financial issues.

G20 Summit: The G20 Summit is an annual meeting of the leaders (heads of state or government) of the G20 member countries, along with representatives from the European Union. During these summits, leaders discuss and make decisions on various global issues, including economic policies, trade, development, climate change, and more.So, when people refer to "G20," they might be talking about either the forum itself (Group of Twenty) or the annual summit where leaders come together to address important global challenges (G20 Summit). Both are significant in the context of international diplomacy and global governance.

ThTe Group of Twenty, often abbreviated as G20, is an intergovernors from 19 countries and

The Group of Twenty (G20) is the premier forum for international economic cooperation. It plays an important role in shaping and strengthening global architecture and governance on all major international economic issues. India holds the Presidency of the G20 from 1 December 2022 to 30 November 2023.

Elevation to Leader’s Level

The G20 was upgraded to the level of Heads of State/Government in the wake of the global economic and financial crisis of 2007, and, in 2009, was designated the “premier forum for international economic cooperation”.

The G20 Summit is held annually, under the leadership of a rotating Presidency. The G20 initially focused largely on broad macroeconomic issues, but it has since expanded its agenda to inter-alia include trade, sustainable development, health, agriculture, energy, environment, climate change, and anti-corruption.